Types of wood used in ancient tools
Knowledge and experience are needed to identify the different species of wood that are used for tools. There are several good books on the subject, and you can also get wood sample kits from wood supply companies to help with identification. Perhaps the best way to do wood identification is to have an experienced person label examples for you, perhaps even using some of the tools you have already collected, pointing out the distinguishing characteristics of each species.
Wood identification is much easier in the classroom with a clean, fresh sample. The two elements that make up the grain, at first glance, are the longitudinal pores, which form the annual rings, and the rays.
The pores are the openings in the small tubes that go up the tree, which appear as holes when the tree is cut through the trunk. The tree’s annual rings are the result of having more or more pores at the beginning of the growing season. If the pores are visible to the naked eye, the wood is called open grain. If a 5X magnification is needed, the wood is called compact or compact grained.
The pores appear differently when the log is cut lengthwise. Now they appear as small groves, like the ones you would get by cutting a bunch of straws lengthwise. On older tools, these can be full of dirt, making them appear darker. If the cut goes through the center of the tree, the annual rings appear as parallel lines. If the cut is at right angles to the radial section, the rings “deflect.”
The rays appear solid and flattened and run outward from the center of the tree. In cross section, they look like thin lines running from the core to the crust. In the radial section, they become irregular specks; in the flat section are tiny straight lines. Rays are important identification and generally need a 5X magnification.
Two other definitions: sapwood is a donut-shaped section of wood next to the bark; it is usually much lighter in color than the remaining heartwood. With just this information, you can identify the 20 or more common tool woods. The clearest view of the pores and rays requires cutting the wood with a sharp razor, something most collectors would never think of doing, unless it could be done somewhere hidden. Clean the surface with steel wool n. 0000 will work just as well. This will also help determine the true color, as most tools have an aged surface (patina) that intensifies their natural color.
The most used wood for tools is beech, especially in the planes. Although it is a distant cousin to birch and maple, the three are not easy to distinguish. They are light colored woods, but can patina to almost a walnut color. Maple, which is occasionally used for handles and tie rods, is rarely used for airplanes, so the choice for molding airplanes is almost always birch or beech. Early American aircraft manufacturers, particularly those in 18th-century New England, used a lot of birch, but wooden aircraft made after 1800 were most often beech.
Boxwood is used to mold wear strips for planes, plows and miniatures. When this light yellow for polishing wood is paginated and darkened, it could be mistaken for maple. The under 5X maple end grain has a variety of distinct ray lines, while the boxwood beams are so thin and close together that they could go unnoticed even at magnification. The apple, particularly its sapwood, is occasionally taken for boxwood, but it is much grainy and has a pinkish-brown color. Cherry and apple were the most widely used fruit woods. The cherry has a reddish tint to its brown color and, although it looks a lot like the apple, it is more grainy. Another characteristic of cherry, often used for decorative purposes, is the contrast in color between the sapwood and the heartwood. The sapwood is almost white. Many carpenters used the sapwood and heartwood in the same piece to effect.
The forests in the next group are not botanical “cousins,” but they are all dark in color. Ebony can be jet black or have dark brown streaks or undertones. You will know that it is ebony because of its extremely smooth surface. Ebony is also very heavy and sinks in water. Rosewood displays streaks of color ranging from reddish brown to almost black. There are many species of rosewood, with the East Indian rosewood being the most commonly used in tools, which is darker and more solid in color. Another species, the Brazilian rosewood, was used from the end of the 19th century. It is more orange in tone and dramatic in the figuration of the grain. Lignum vitae, another sinking wood, also has striations that resemble rosewood but varies (on the same piece of wood) between brown and yellow and, unlike rosewood, is very tightly grained.
The last in this category are those of the mahogany, generally of moderate dark brown color, with occasional reddish hues, often very figurative and of moderate open grain. They range from moderately heavy to very heavy weights. There are so many species of mahogany that grow in South, Central, and Africa that only an expert can tell them apart. Mahogany was most commonly used for levels, for infill on English aircraft, and for measuring instruments. Although you may find some streaks of color in the grain, it will not be as prevalent as rosewoods and that is one of the best ways to tell them apart.
Handles that need to absorb blows such as axes and adzes; They are generally made of walnut, a medium brown wood, albeit twisted and open-grained. You will see long grain lines in walnut. Oak, which is rarely used for tools, is an extremely open-grained wood with heavy ray staining.
Hornbeam is a European wood used by German and Austrian toolmakers. It is a light colored wood with many specks. French Cormier is a softer wood similar to our apple. Both are common in airplanes and braces that originate in those countries.
I hope this information helps you identify the woods in your collection of antique tools.